Factors inffuencing the conffdence of fathers in their paternal role during early childhood

1. Introduction

Becoming a parent is one of the most transformative experiences in human life, requiring substantial effort and adaptation [1]. Among the various aspects of parenting, the active involvement of fathers has gained increasing recognition as uniquely critical to a child’s overall development. In particular, paternal engagement, which includes providing emotional support, participating in caregiving activities, and fostering educational development, has been identified as a cornerstone of positive child outcomes.

In the context of South Korea, fatherhood has undergone significant transformation over recent decades. Traditional parenting roles emphasized fathers as heads of the household, primarily responsible for economic support and maintaining an authoritarian relationship with their children, while mothers assumed the primary responsibility for child-rearing [2, 3]. However, societal changes, such as the rapid industrialization of South Korea, increased participation of women in the workforce, declining birth rates, and the weakening of extended family support systems, have reshaped family dynamics. These shifts reflect broader global trends while also being shaped by Korea’s unique cultural and social context [4]. For example, South Korea’s strong emphasis on education and achievement has created distinct pressures and expectations for parental roles, particularly for fathers. Understanding this evolving context is crucial, as it provides insights into how shifting societal norms impact paternal engagement and parenting dynamics.

Fathers play a vital role in fostering their children’s emotional, social, and cognitive development. Their unique engagement complements maternal roles, contributing to secure attachment, emotional regulation, and social skills during early childhood [5]. For instance, active father involvement has been linked to improved language acquisition, problem-solving skills, and emotional resilience in children, outcomes that are often attributed to the distinct nature of paternal interactions, such as playfulness and encouragement of exploration [6]. Fathers’ involvement has also been associated with positive outcomes such as enhanced academic achievement, self-esteem, and behavioral adjustment in children [6]. Moreover, fatherhood can benefit fathers themselves by strengthening the father-child bond and enhancing their sense of identity and purpose within the family [7]. Despite these benefits, direct paternal involvement has historically been underexplored in comparison to maternal parenting, especially in Asian societies, including South Korea, where traditional family structures have often emphasized the father’s economic role over caregiving responsibilities.

To provide a focused analysis of fathers’ roles, this study centers on specific dimensions of paternal involvement, such as paternal role confidence, as key factors associated with parenting behaviors. Paternal confidence holds particular significance in South Korea, where evolving societal expectations have created both challenges and opportunities for fathers [8]. Paternal confidence not only reflects fathers’ self-perception of their parenting ability but also serves as a catalyst for sustained and meaningful engagement with their children. The rationale for focusing on paternal confidence stems from its foundational role in fostering positive parenting behaviors [9, 10]. While constructs like positive parenting behaviors represent the observable outcomes of parenting practices, paternal confidence provides an upstream mechanism that shapes how fathers navigate and respond to parenting challenges. This distinction is central to the study’s conceptual framework, which examines the relationships among paternal confidence, parenting stress and positive parenting behaviors.

This study employs a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to infer causal relationships. As such, factors associated with paternal role confidence are treated as covariates rather than predictors. This adjustment avoids directional language and aligns the interpretations with the study’s methodological scope. For example, instead of stating that parenting stress or positive parenting behaviors are “influenced by” paternal confidence, the analysis frames these relationships as associations, reflecting the inherent limitations of the cross-sectional approach [9, 10]. The study design emphasizes associations rather than causality to ensure methodological rigor and clarity.

Parenting stress is an additional focus of this study, as it represents a significant challenge for many parents. When the demands of parenting exceed available resources, stress levels can rise, potentially leading to negative outcomes for both parents and children [6, 7]. Fathers who lack confidence in their role may experience heightened stress, which could impact their ability to engage in positive parenting behaviors [4]. Understanding these dynamics is essential to supporting fathers and improving family outcomes.

Finally, this study, conducted in South Korea, aims to address gaps in the understanding of fathers’ parenting by examining the interplay between paternal confidence, parenting stress, and positive parenting behaviors. By focusing on these factors, the study seeks to provide foundational insights that can inform early childhood parenting education programs tailored specifically to fathers. The findings are particularly relevant in the Korean context, where cultural expectations and family dynamics are rapidly evolving, offering a unique lens through which to examine the intersection of tradition and modernity in parenting [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].

2. Research method

3. Research results

4. Discussion

This study is a descriptive survey research conducted with 180 fathers of young children to identify the factors influencing paternal role confidence. It examined positive parenting behavior, parenting stress, and paternal role confidence, as well as the differences according to general characteristics. Unlike causal studies, this research focused on exploring associations between variables to provide foundational data for developing early childhood parenting programs. The cross-sectional design of the study limits causal inference, but it offers valuable insights into relationships among the examined factors.

The findings obtained from this study are discussed as follows:

First, the differences in positive parenting behavior, parenting stress, and paternal role confidence according to the general characteristics of fathers with young children were examined. These differences indicate that age-related factors may influence positive parenting behavior and stress, suggesting that younger fathers might require different support structures compared to older fathers. Interestingly, fathers over 40 years demonstrated higher levels of both paternal role confidence and parenting stress, revealing a paradoxical relationship. This may be due to increased life responsibilities, such as financial and career pressures, which older fathers typically face. While their life experience and confidence in parenting are strengthened, these same factors could contribute to heightened stress levels. Addressing this duality through tailored interventions is critical for fostering balanced parenting. These findings are consistent with prior research, such as Park’s [19] longitudinal studies, which highlight how positive parenting behaviors adapt over time based on child developmental stages. Differences in positive parenting behaviors and stress levels were also observed based on the child’s developmental stage, emphasizing the dynamic nature of parenting experiences.

Second, the correlation between positive parenting behavior, parenting stress, and paternal role confidence was analyzed. A positive correlation between paternal role confidence and positive parenting behavior (r = 0.431, p < 0.001) and a negative correlation between paternal role confidence and parenting stress (r = −0.523, p < 0.001) were identified. This aligns with findings by Choi and Kim [20], who reported that paternal attachment positively influences positive parenting behaviors and confidence. Similarly, Hyun’s [21] work highlights the structural and social barriers that affect paternal confidence, such as limited workplace flexibility and reduced direct parenting involvement. In this context, understanding the role of external support systems, such as employer-provided parenting programs and community-based networks, becomes essential. For fathers over 40, specific interventions that focus on stress management and time flexibility could bridge the gap between confidence and stress, enabling more effective parenting behaviors.

Third, the factors influencing paternal role confidence were analyzed. Positive parenting behavior (β = 0.434, p < 0.001) and parenting stress (β = −0.397, p < 0.001) were both significant predictors of paternal role confidence. These findings support practical interventions, such as workplace policies promoting parenting support or community-based programs to reduce stress and enhance father-child interactions. Additionally, given the unique challenges faced by older fathers, tailored interventions such as peer support groups and stress management workshops could directly address their needs. These initiatives could improve not only their parenting confidence but also their overall well-being, reflecting the broader importance of paternal mental health in effective parenting. The emphasis on tailored interventions reflects prior research advocating for father-specific educational programs [21].

Unlike the results section, the discussion here avoids redundancy by interpreting the findings within the context of existing literature and practical applications. For instance, the relationships between parenting stress, positive behaviors, and paternal confidence are expanded with real-world implications, such as the role of community or workplace interventions. This ensures that the discussion contributes novel insights rather than repeating the results.

All references to findings related to new mother participants have been removed to ensure the discussion remains focused on fathers of young children, consistent with the study’s objectives.

This study has several limitations. First, its cross-sectional design restricts causal inference. While associations were identified, the study cannot establish directional relationships among the variables. Second, the inclusion criteria discrepancy, where 20% of the sample included fathers with children older than 3 years, introduces variability. Third, 5% of missing data, though managed using multiple imputation, may still contribute to minor biases. Fourth, the absence of adjusted regression models limits the precision of findings by not adequately controlling for potential confounders. Future studies should incorporate multivariate models to provide more reliable estimates of the independent contributions of parenting stress and behaviors to paternal confidence. Lastly, self-reported survey data may be subject to response bias.

Future research should focus on integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches to explore the complexities of paternal role confidence. Specifically, longitudinal designs combined with in-depth interviews can help clarify the evolving nature of paternal confidence, particularly for older fathers. Interventions such as stress reduction programs, skill-building workshops, and community engagement activities targeting different age groups of fathers could also provide robust, actionable insights. Finally, refining predictive models and addressing multicollinearity among variables will strengthen future analyses, ensuring more precise and actionable recommendations.

5. Conclusions

This study aimed at identifying the factors influencing paternal role confidence in fathers of young children by investigating the correlation between positive parenting behavior and parenting stress. The study highlights the need for a multidimensional approach to understanding paternal role confidence, including the roles of demographic, behavioral, and psychological factors. Rather than restating detailed results, the conclusion focuses on the broader implications of these findings and their relevance to enhancing paternal role confidence in practice.

First, parenting stress emerged as a critical area for intervention, emphasizing the importance of reducing stress to improve positive parenting behaviors and paternal confidence. Notably, fathers over 40 years of age exhibited higher confidence but also reported increased stress levels, highlighting the dual challenges faced by this group. Tailored strategies, such as stress management workshops, peer support groups, and workplace flexibility initiatives, are essential for addressing these unique needs. These programs can enable older fathers to leverage their confidence while mitigating stress, fostering more effective parenting practices.

Second, this study underscores the significance of considering contextual factors such as the child’s developmental stage and the father’s economic background when designing interventions. Tailored approaches are necessary to address the diverse needs of fathers, particularly those from varying socioeconomic conditions. For example, low-income fathers may benefit from subsidized parenting programs or financial counseling, while fathers of younger children might require education on early developmental milestones.

Finally, the study highlights the need for integrated parenting programs that involve both mothers and fathers. Such programs should be supported by robust infrastructure, including accessible community resources and workplace accommodations, to create an environment that encourages active paternal involvement. Programs specifically designed for fathers, such as hands-on parenting workshops and community networking events, can enhance paternal role confidence while promoting collaborative parenting dynamics. By implementing these strategies, paternal role confidence can be enhanced, contributing positively to the development and well-being of young children.

While this study provides valuable insights, its reliance on survey methods suggests the need for future qualitative research to explore the nuanced experiences of fathers. Longitudinal studies are particularly needed to examine how paternal confidence evolves in response to changing life stages, career pressures, and family dynamics. For fathers over 40, such studies could reveal how their unique challenges and strengths interact over time, providing data to refine intervention strategies. These approaches would help refine interventions and create a more holistic understanding of paternal role confidence.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available for research purposes upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

MJK, SYP, JHC, HNC, JWS—designed the study and carried them out, prepared the manuscript for publication and reviewed the draft of the manuscript; interpreted the data. MJK, SYP, JHC, HNC—supervised the data collection, analyzed the data. All authors have read and approved the manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by the Clinical Trial Review Committee of Catholic Kwandong University, Korea (IRB No: CKU-24-02-0501). Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved.

Acknowledgment

Not applicable.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.