Effects of hand positions on neuromuscular control strategies in closed-kinetic-chain push-ups

Background: The push-up is a widely utilized closed kinetic chain exercise for upper body strength training, characterized by its versatility in hand positions. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying push-ups performed with varying hand positions, numerous studies have investigated differences in individual joint and muscle variables between these variations and standard push-ups. However, the underlying multi-joint neuromuscular control strategies remain unclear. This study aims to identify different neuromuscular control strategies by comparing muscle synergies across four push-up variations with standard push-ups. Methods: Thirteen male fitness enthusiasts participated in this study, performing five push-ups each with various hand positions: standard push-up (SP), wide grip push-up (WGP), narrow grip push-up (NGP), internally rotated push-up (IRP) and externally rotated push-up (ERP). Electromyographic (EMG) activity of ten major muscles in the dominant right upper limb was recorded. Muscle synergies were extracted using non-negative matrix factorization. Results: All push-up variations can be decomposed into two muscle synergies. More differences were seen in Synergy 1 compared to SP: WGP had higher posterior deltoid (p = 0.001, d = −1.571), NGP had higher triceps brachii (p < 0.001, d = −1.816) and upper trapezius (p < 0.001, d = −1.843), and ERP had lower flexor carpi ulnaris (p = 0.005, d = 1.437) and extensor carpi radialis (p = 0.011, d = 1.346) but higher biceps brachii (p = 0.002, d = −0.858) muscle weights. Synergy 2 showed higher similarity across variations. Conclusions: Hand position variations do not alter the number of muscle synergies but modify their patterns. More differences occur in the centrifugal to nadir phase (Synergy 1). Therefore, a greater focus of attention on the centrifugal phase may be more effective in achieving the training effect of each type of push-up.

Muscle synergy; Strength training; Biomechanics; Non-negative matrix factorization

[1] Ebben WP, Wurm B, VanderZanden TL, Spadavecchia ML, Durocher JJ, Bickham CT, et al. Kinetic analysis of several variations of push-ups. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2011; 25: 2891–2894.

[2] Herrington L, Waterman R, Smith L. Electromyographic analysis of shoulder muscles during press-up variations and progressions. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2015; 25: 100–106.

[3] Sha Z, Dai B. The validity of using one force platform to quantify whole-body forces, velocities, and power during a plyometric push-up. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2021; 13: 103.

[4] Nichols IA, Szivak TK. Effects of different hand widths on plyometric push-up performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2021; 35: S80–S83.

[5] Cogley RM, Archambault TA, Fibeger JF, Koverman MM, Youdas JW, Hollman JH. Comparison of muscle activation using various hand positions during the push-up exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2005; 19: 628–633.

[6] Donkers MJ, An KN, Chao EY, Morrey BF. Hand position affects elbow joint load during push-up exercise. Journal of Biomechanics. 1993; 26: 625–632.

[7] Chuckpaiwong B, Harnroongroj T. Palmar pressure distribution during push-up exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2009; 50: 702–704.

[8] Arghadeh R, Alizadeh MH, Minoonejad H, Sheikhhoseini R, Asgari M, Jaitner T. Electromyography of shoulder muscles in individuals without scapular dyskinesis during closed kinetic chain exercises on stable and unstable surfaces: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2024; 6: 1385693.

[9] Allen CC, Dean KA, Jung AP, Petrella JK. Upper body muscular activation during variations of push-ups in healthy men. International Journal of Exercise Science. 2013; 6: 3.

[10] Cheung VCK, Seki K. Approaches to revealing the neural basis of muscle synergies: a review and a critique. Journal of Neurophysiology. 2021; 125: 1580–1597.

[11] Kerkman JN, Daffertshofer A, Gollo LL, Breakspear M, Boonstra TW. Network structure of the human musculoskeletal system shapes neural interactions on multiple time scales. Science Advances. 2018; 4: eaat0497.

[12] Cheung VC, d’Avella A, Bizzi E. Adjustments of motor pattern for load compensation via modulated activations of muscle synergies during natural behaviors. Journal of Neurophysiology. 2009; 101: 1235–1257.

[13] d’Avella A, Bizzi E. Shared and specific muscle synergies in natural motor behaviors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2005; 102: 3076–3081.

[14] Umehara J, Yagi M, Hirono T, Ueda Y, Ichihashi N. Quantification of muscle coordination underlying basic shoulder movements using muscle synergy extraction. Journal of Biomechanics. 2021; 120: 110358.

[15] Aoyama T, Ae K, Kohno Y. Interindividual differences in upper limb muscle synergies during baseball throwing motion in male college baseball players. Journal of Biomechanics. 2022; 145: 111384.

[16] Chen X, Dong X, Feng Y, Jiao Y, Yu J, Song Y, et al. Muscle activation patterns and muscle synergies reflect different modes of coordination during upper extremity movement. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2023; 16: 912440.

[17] Pan Z, Liu L, Li X, Ma Y. Characteristics of muscle synergy and anticipatory synergy adjustments strategy when cutting in different angles. Gait & Posture. 2024; 107: 114–120.

[18] Li Z, Zhao X, Wang Z, Xu R, Meng L, Ming D. A hierarchical classification of gestures under two force levels based on muscle synergy. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control. 2022; 77: 103695.

[19] Ho AJ, Cudlip AC, Ribeiro DC, Dickerson CR. Examining upper extremity muscle demand during selected push-up variants. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2019; 44: 165–172.

[20] Li M, Meng X, Guan L, Kim Y, Kim S. Comparing the effects of static stretching alone and in combination with post-activation performance enhancement on squat jump performance at different knee starting angles. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2023; 22: 769–777.

[21] Dhahbi W, Chaabene H, Chaouachi A, Padulo J, Behm DG, Cochrane J, et al. Kinetic analysis of push-up exercises: a systematic review with practical recommendations. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2022; 21: 1–40.

[22] Freeman S, Karpowicz A, Gray J, McGill S. Quantifying muscle patterns and spine load during various forms of the push-up. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2006; 38: 570–577.

[23] LaChance PF, Hortobagyi T. Influence of cadence on muscular performance during push-up and pull-up exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 1994; 8: 76–79.

[24] Vossen JF, Kramer JE, Burke DG, Vossen DP. Comparison of dynamic push-up training and plyometric push-up training on upper-body power and strength. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2000; 14: 248–253.

[25] Guan L, Li K, Li H, Kim Y, Kim S. Effects of core muscle stability on kicking performance during the aerial phase of taekwondo wing kicks. Journal of Men’s Health. 2024; 20: 138–148.

[26] Popesco T, Gardet Q, Bossard J, Maffiuletti NA, Place N. Centrally mediated responses to NMES are influenced by muscle group and stimulation parameters. Scientific Reports. 2024; 14: 24918.

[27] Hu Z, Zhang Y, Dong T, Dong M, Kim S, Kim Y. Gender differences in neuromuscular control during the preparation phase of single-leg landing task in badminton. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2023; 12: 3296.

[28] Dong M, Lee J-H, Wang J, Xu Y, Wu C, Kim S. The contribution of upper or lower extremity of male athletes differs as distances of overhead volleyball pass increase. Journal of Men’s Health. 2024; 20: 198–206.

[29] Qu Q, Wu C, Xu Y, Lu Y, Zhang J, Kim S. Effects of mobile phone task engagement on gait and dynamic stability during stair ascent and descent. Molecular & Cellular Biomechanics. 2024; 21: 243.

[30] Norman RW, Komi PV. Electromechanical delay in skeletal muscle under normal movement conditions. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 1979; 106: 241–248.

[31] Ferreira CL, Oliveira Barroso F, Torricelli D, Pons JL, Politti F, Lucareli PRG. Muscle synergies analysis shows altered neural strategies in women with patellofemoral pain during walking. PLOS ONE. 2023; 18: e0292464.

[32] Fan P, Yang Z, Wang T, Li J, Kim Y, Kim S. Neuromuscular control strategies in basketball shooting: distance-dependent analysis of muscle synergies. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 2024; 23: 571–580.

[33] Santuz A, Ekizos A, Janshen L, Baltzopoulos V, Arampatzis A. On the methodological implications of extracting muscle synergies from human locomotion. International Journal of Neural Systems. 2017; 27: 1750007.

[34] Li M, Dong M, Wang T, Lu Y, Bum CH, Kim S. Effects of static stretching and its combination with conditioning contractions on lower limb muscle synergy and squat jump performance at two initial knee joint angles. Journal of Men’s Health. 2024; 20: 101–110.

[35] Lee DD, Seung HS. Learning the parts of objects by non-negative matrix factorization. Nature. 1999; 401: 788–791.

[36] Kerkman JN, Bekius A, Boonstra TW, Daffertshofer A, Dominici N. Muscle synergies and coherence networks reflect different modes of coordination during walking. Frontiers in Physiology. 2020; 11: 751.

[37] Alexander RM. A minimum energy cost hypothesis for human arm trajectories. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1997; 76: 97–105.

[38] Lephart SM, Henry TJ. The physiological basis for open and closed kinetic chain rehabilitation for the upper extremity. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation. 1996; 5: 71–87.

[39] Lear LJ, Gross MT. An electromyographical analysis of the scapular stabilizing synergists during a push-up progression. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. 1998; 28: 146–157.

[40] Lee JH, Park JS, Jeong WK. Importance of initial peak torque of the supraspinatus muscle during shoulder flexion. Clinics in Orthopedic Surgery. 2022; 14: 272–280.

[41] Mansfield PJ, Neumann DA. Essentials of kinesiology for the physical therapist assistant. 3rd edn. Mosby: St. Louis. 2018.

[42] Ludewig PM, Hoff MS, Osowski EE, Meschke SA, Rundquist PJ. Relative balance of serratus anterior and upper trapezius muscle activity during push-up exercises. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2004; 32: 484–493.

[43] Collins KS, Bradley AP, Christensen BK, Waldera RW, Klawitter LA, Ogren L, et al. Bench press range-of-motion and velocity-based repetition control: effects on ballistic push-up performance in males. International Journal of Exercise Science. 2024; 17: 38–53.

[44] Bagg SD, Forrest WJ. A biomechanical analysis of scapular rotation during arm abduction in the scapular plane. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 1988; 67: 238–245.

[45] Hasan S, Iqbal A, Alghadir AH, Alonazi A, Alyahya D. The combined effect of the trapezius muscle strengthening and pectoralis minor muscle stretching on correcting the rounded shoulder posture and shoulder flexion range of motion among young Saudi females: a randomized comparative study. Healthcare. 2023; 11: 500.

[46] Myers JB, Oyama S, Wassinger CA, Ricci RD, Abt JP, Conley KM, et al. Reliability, precision, accuracy, and validity of posterior shoulder tightness assessment in overhead athletes. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2007; 35: 1922–1930.

[47] Marcolin G, Petrone N, Moro T, Battaglia G, Bianco A, Paoli A. Selective activation of shoulder, trunk, and arm muscles: a comparative analysis of different push-up variants. Journal of Athletic Training. 2015; 50: 1126–1132.

[48] Kristiansen M, Samani A, Vuillerme N, Madeleine P, Hansen EA. External and internal focus of attention increases muscular activation during bench press in resistance-trained participants. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2018; 32: 2442–2451.

[49] Grgic J, Mikulic I, Mikulic PJS. Acute and long-term effects of attentional focus strategies on muscular strength: a meta-analysis. Sports. 2021; 9: 153.

[50] Steele KM, Tresch MC, Perreault EJ. The number and choice of muscles impact the results of muscle synergy analyses. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience. 2013; 7: 105.

[51] Garcia-Retortillo S, Romero-Gómez C, Ivanov PC. Network of muscle fibers activation facilitates inter-muscular coordination, adapts to fatigue and reflects muscle function. Communications Biology. 2023; 6: 891.