Characteristics of external loads in winning and losing matches in male professional volleyball players using wearable inertial sensors

Background: Volleyball requires dynamic activity, and the external load is related to winning or losing a game. This study aimed to compare external loads between won and lost matches and to describe position-specific load patterns in starters from the Korean men’s professional volleyball league. Methods: A total of 212 individual data points (113 from won matches and 99 from lost matches) were collected across 36 matches during the 2022–2023 season from a single team, including setters, outside hitters/opposite spikers (OH/OS), and middle blockers (MB). External loads were measured using inertial sensor-based wearable devices (Catapult, Melbourne, Australia) and included playerload (PL), total jumps (TJ), low-band jumps (LBJ), mid-band jumps (MBJ), high-band jumps (HBJ), explosive efforts (EE), horizontal explosive efforts (HEE), and repeated high-intensity efforts (RHIE). Results: PL, TJ, HBJ, and EE were significantly higher in won matches (p < 0.05). In the positional analysis, OH/OS players showed significant differences in TJ, HBJ, and EE, while MB players showed significant differences in TJ, EE, and HEE (all p < 0.05). When comparing positions in won matches, all external load variables showed significant differences (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The greater external loads were observed in matches that were won, and distinct external load patterns across positions suggest that position-specific training considerations may be beneficial.

Wearable device; Activity monitoring; Position demands; Match outcome; Performance analysis

[1] Chacoma A, Billoni OV. Simple mechanism rules the dynamics of volleyball. Journal of Physics: Complexity. 2022; 3: 035006.

[2] Keoliya AA, Ramteke SU, Boob MA, Somaiya KJ. Enhancing volleyball athlete performance: a comprehensive review of training interventions and their impact on agility, explosive power, and strength. Cureus. 2024; 16: e53273–e53279.

[3] Pisa MF, Zecchin AM, Gomes LG, Puggina EF. External load in male professional volleyball: a systematic review. Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity. 2022; 14: 7.

[4] Ramirez-Campillo R, García-de-Alcaraz A, Chaabene H, Moran J, Negra Y, Granacher U. Effects of plyometric jump training on physical fitness in amateur and professional volleyball: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology. 2021; 12: 636140–636157.

[5] Lima RF, González Férnandez FT, Silva AF, Laporta L, de Oliveira Castro H, Matos S, et al. Within-week variations and relationships between internal and external intensities occurring in male professional volleyball training sessions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19: 8691–8700.

[6] Taylor JB, Barnes HC, Gombatto SP, Greenwood D, Ford KR. Quantifying external load and injury occurrence in women’s collegiate volleyball players across a competitive season. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2022; 36: 805–812.

[7] Bourdon PC, Cardinale M, Murray A, Gastin P, Kellmann M, Varley MC, et al. Monitoring athlete training loads: consensus statement. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2017; 12: S2161–S2170.

[8] Coutts AJ, Crowcroft S, Kempton T. Developing athlete monitoring systems: theoretical basis and practical applications. In Kellmann M, Beckmann J (eds.) Sport, recovery, and performance (pp. 17–31). 1st edn. Routledge: London, UK. 2021.

[9] Timoteo TF, Debien PB, Miloski B, Werneck FZ, Gabbett T, Bara Filho MG. Influence of workload and recovery on injuries in elite male volleyball players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2021; 35: 791–796.

[10] Pawlik D, Mroczek D. Fatigue and training load factors in volleyball. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19: 11149–11160.

[11] Lima R, Gracinda A, Silva B, Silva AF, Pereira J, Silva RM, et al. Week-to-week variations of internal and external intensity measures in professional women volleyball players. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2024; 19: 294–300.

[12] Kupperman N, Curtis MA, Saliba SA, Hertel J. Quantification of workload and wellness measures in a women’s collegiate volleyball season. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2021; 3: 702419–702431.

[13] Scott MT, Scott TJ, Kelly VG. The validity and reliability of global positioning systems in team sport: a brief review. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2016; 30: 1470–1490.

[14] Mackay L, Sawczuk T, Jones B, Darrall-Jones J, Clark A, Whitehead S. The reliability of a commonly used (CatapultTM Vector S7) microtechnology unit to detect movement characteristics used in court-based sports. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2025; 43: 555–564.

[15] Pocek S, Milosevic Z, Lakicevic N, Pantelic-Babic K, Imbronjev M, Thomas E, et al. Anthropometric characteristics and vertical jump abilities by player position and performance level of junior female volleyball players. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18: 8377–8385.

[16] Vlantes TG, Readdy T. Using microsensor technology to quantify match demands in collegiate women’s volleyball. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2017; 31: 3266–3278.

[17] Lin HS, Wu HJ, Wu CC, Chen JY, Chang CK. Quantifying internal and external training loads in collegiate male volleyball players during a competitive season. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2024; 16: 168.

[18] Zapardiel JC, Paramio EM, Ferragut C, Vila H, Asin-Izquierdo I. Comparison of internal and external load metrics between won and lost game segments in elite beach handball. Human Movement. 2023; 24: 85–94.

[19] Senbel S, Artan NS, Nolan J, Taber C, Long SA, Sharma S, et al. Underpinning performance metrics between a winning and losing season in division 1 women’s basketball. SN Computer Science. 2025; 6: 293.

[20] Nobari H, Banoocy NK, Oliveira R, Pérez-Gómez J. Win, draw, or lose? Global positioning system-based variables’ effect on the match outcome: a full-season study on an Iranian professional soccer team. Sensors. 2021; 21: 5695–5708.

[21] Fox JL, Green J, Scanlan AT. Not all about the effort? A comparison of playing intensities during winning and losing game quarters in basketball. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2021; 16: 1378–1381.

[22] Riboli A, Nardi F, Osti M, Cefis M, Tesoro G, Mazzoni S. Training load, official match locomotor demand, and their association in top-class soccer players during a full competitive season. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2025; 39: 249–259.

[23] Nobari H, Silva R, Manuel Clemente F, Oliveira R, Carlos-Vivas J, Perez-Gomez J. Variations of external load across a soccer season for starters and non-starters. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology. 2023; 237: 150–159.

[24] Horta TAG, Coimbra DR, Miranda R, Werneck FZ, Bara Filho MG. Is the internal training load different between starters and nonstarters volleyball players submitted to the same external load training? A case study. Brazilian Journal of Kinanthropometry and Human Performance. 2017; 19: 395–405.

[25] João PV, Medeiros A, Ortigão H, Lee M, Mota MP. Global position analysis during official elite female beach volleyball competition: a pilot study. Applied Sciences. 2021; 11: 9382–9390.

[26] Zayniddinovich NI. The role of strategy in volleyball: keys to a winning team. Bulletin news in New Science Society International Scientific Journal. 2025; 2: 5–13.

[27] Bobula G, Piech J, Płonka A, Król P, Czarny W, Pinto R, et al. Evaluation of lower extremities power, movement, position and effectiveness in volleyball. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14: 10065–10079.